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Spanish to English - Standard rate: 0.08 EUR per word / 35 EUR per hour Italian to English - Standard rate: 0.08 EUR per word / 35 EUR per hour
Spanish to English: Duty, Reason and Virtue General field: Social Sciences Detailed field: Philosophy
Source text - Spanish El arbitrio tiene una relación más directa con el objeto y es afectado por la sensibilidad (en cuanto placer o dolor) y así por el sentimiento de respeto (—que precisamente produce la ley moral al nivel de la Wille legislativa y que en el arbitrio puede considerarse causa y motor de la acción con valor moral), y por ello es al nivel del arbitrio que el agente puede subordinar las exigencias de la sensibilidad a las de la razón —o viceversa— y en ese sentido se encuentra aquí la libertad negativa (como independencia respecto de lo sensible), que en caso de dejarse informar por la voluntad se convierte en libertad positiva (autonomía).
Translation - English The faculty of choice has a more direct relationship with the object, and is affected by the sensibility (qua pleasurable or painful) and thus by the sensation of respect (Achtung, which is precisely what produces the moral law at the level of the legislative Wille and which in the faculty of choice can be considered as the cause and motor of actions with moral value). As a result it is at the level of the faculty of choice that the agent can subordinate the demands of the sensibility to those of reason--or viceversa--and in this sense it is here that negative freedom is found (qua independence with regards to sensible things). This negative freedom, in turn, when it allows itself to be informed by the will, becomes positive freedom (autonomy).
Italian to English: The novella of Grasso the Inlay Worker General field: Art/Literary
Source text - Italian Nella città di Firenze, e negli anni di Cristo M.CCCC. IX. come è usanza, trovandosi una domenica sera a cena una brigata di giovani in casa d'un gentiluomo di Firenze, il cui nome fu Tommaso de' Pecori, persona onorevole, e da bene, e sollazzevole, e che volentieri si trovava in brigata; ed avendo cenato, standosi al fuoco, e ragionando di molte cose, come in tali luoghi tra' compagni avviene, disse un di loro: deh che vuol dire, che sta sera non ci è voluto venir Manetto Ammannatini, e tutti glie l'abbiamo detto, e non abbiamo potuto conducercelo? Il detto Manetto era, ed è ancora une che fa le tarsie [1], e stava a bottega in su la piazza di san Giovanni, ed era tenuto buonissimo maestro di dette tarsie, e di fare ordigni da tavole di donne; ed era piacevolissima persona, e di natura più tosto bonario, che no, e d'età d'anni xxviii; e perchè egli era compresso e grande, era chiamate il Grasso, e sempre era usato trovarsi con questa brigata di sopra nominata, i quali tutti erano di natura sollazzevole, e che si davano insieme buon tempo.
Translation - English In Florence in 1409, IX. as was their custom, a group of young men were dining one Sunday evening at the house of one of their members by the name of Tommaso de' Pecori, a well to do, honorable and witty member of the group. Having dined, they moved over by the fireplace and conversed about any number of things, as one does when one is in good company. One of the men said, "What's this about Manetto Ammannatini not wanting to come this evening? We all told him about our get-together, but none of us could convince him to come." This Manetto was, and is still, a worker in wood inlay, and at that moment he was in his workshop in the plaza of San Giovanni. He was reputed to be a great master of inlay, and would make inlaid wooden keepsakes for women. He was a very pleasant person to be around, generous by nature, and at that time he was 28 years old. Because he was compact and large of body, everyone called him "Grasso", meaning the "Fat Man". He often spent time with the group of young men we've already mentioned, all of whom were witty and had grand times together.
Spanish to English: The prediction of insolvency in Mexico General field: Bus/Financial Detailed field: Business/Commerce (general)
Source text - Spanish Uno de los temas más relevantes en los últimos años en el ámbito de los negocios en México ha sido la quiebra de las empresas, esto se ha debido a diferentes factores como la insolvencia empresarial, por lo que es un área de investigación financiera importante debido a que es un evento que puede llegar a tener efectos adversos en la economía.
La insolvencia empresarial según Lev (1978) se define como la incapacidad de la empresa para atender sus obligaciones financieras. Asimismo, Ibarra (2010), coincide que insolvencia es la falta de liquidez para el pago de pasivos, de la misma forma, Abreu y Morales (2008) mencionan que una empresa es técnicamente insolvente si es incapaz de cumplir sus obligaciones a medida que se vencen.
Podemos citar algunos ejemplos de empresas mexicanas que han caído en insolvencia, como es el caso de Controladora Comercial Mexicana, la cual poseía deudas de más de 3 mil millones de pesos, con más de 6 mil proveedores. Recibió un préstamo por Nacional Financiera para el pago de sus acreedores, Zúñiga (2008). Por otra parte cabe recalcar que la falta de pago de Comercial Mexicana afectó al Grupo Financiero Banorte con una suma de 80 millones de dólares sin garantía, García (2009).
Translation - English One of the topics of greatest relevance for the Mexican business world in recent years has been bankruptcy. This is due to various factors, especially the fact that corporate insolvency can have adverse effects on the economy.
Lev (1978) defines insolvency as the incapacity of a business to meet its financial obligations. Similarly, Ibarra (2010) states that insolvency consists in the lack of liquidity necessary in order to make timely payment of outstanding liabilities. Abreu and Morales (2008) assert that a business is technically bankrupt if it is unable to meet its obligations at the time when they come due.
Various examples of Mexican businesses that have become insolvent can be cited, such as the case of Controladora Comercial Mexicana, which possessed debts of more than three billion pesos with more than six thousand providers. This company received a loan from Nacional Financiera in order to pay its creditors, as Zúñiga (2008) recounts. In addition, the suspension of payments by Comercial Mexicana also affected Grupo Financiera Banorte, which held a total of 80 million dollars of unbacked loans to this company, according to García (2009).
Spanish to English: The Historical Grounds for the Way of St. James General field: Social Sciences Detailed field: Archaeology
Source text - Spanish El Camino de Santiago recorre Europa, uniendo el Báltico con el noroeste de España. Nace a comienzos del siglo IX, cuando, lentamente, empieza a difundirse la noticia de que el obispo de Iria Flavia, Teodomiro, ha redescubierto la tumba del Apóstol Santiago en un lugar llamado Compostela.
Las excavaciones arqueológicas de mediados del siglo XX han descubierto la lápida y los restos del edificio sepulcral de Teodomiro bajo la actual catedral de Santiago, muy cerca de la tumba del Apóstol. Desafortunadamente, seguimos sin saber qué motivo convenció a Teodomiro y, tras él, a toda Europa, de que allí, en el antiguo cementerio de un lugar abandonado, se encontraban los restos de Santiago el Mayor. Tampoco sabemos por qué en ese lugar, que siempre fue pequeño, y que quedó despoblado desde el siglo V, había sin embargo un gran cementerio, con tumbas romanas y, posteriormente, de época sueva, correspondiente a la invasión germánica de Galicia.
A lo largo del último año, he tenido la fortuna y el privilegio de explorar las zonas de más difícil acceso en el sepulcro de Santiago. Allí he encontrado inscripciones hasta ahora desconocidas, que, por primera vez, confirman el origen paleocristiano de la tradición jacobea. Durante mi intervención mostraré los principales resultados. Algunos los considero como conclusiones. Otros requieren un estudio más amplio antes de exponerlos por escrito. Sin embargo, por su interés y su importancia, también los mostraré durante esta intervención oral.
Translation - English The Way of St. James reaches all across Europe, uniting the Baltic with the northwest of Spain. It was at the beginning of the 9th century that the news began to slowly spread across Europe that the Bishop of Iria Flavia, Theodemir, had rediscovered the tomb of the apostle St. James in a place called Compostela.
The archeological excavations of the middle of the 20th century discovered the headstone and the remains of the sepulchral building of Theodemir, very close to the tomb of the apostle. Unfortunately, we still do not know what convinced Teodomiro, and after him all of Europe, that there, in the ancient cemetary of an abandoned village, the remains of James the Greater were to be found. Nor do we know why in this hamlet, which had always been small, there was nevertheless a large cemetary, with Roman tombs as well as burial sites dating to the era of the Suevians, corresponding to the time of the Germanic invasion of Galicia.
Over the course of the past year, I have had the good fortune and the privilege of exploring the most difficult to reach zones of the tomb of St. James. There I encountered inscriptions which were previously unknown, and which, for the first time, confirm the paleo-Christian origins of the tradition concerning St. James. During my talk I will present my principal results. Some people already consider them as conclusive. Others have requested a broader study prior to publishing these results. Nevertheless, due to their interest and importance, I will also present them during this talk.
Spanish to English: Charles S. Peirce in Europe General field: Social Sciences Detailed field: Philosophy
Source text - Spanish En esta contribución me centraré en las dimensiones estéticas del periodo cosmopolita de Peirce. Como el Prof. Houser ha señalado ya, las experiencias europeas de Peirce influyeron en el desarrollo posterior de su pensamiento, y así sucede también con sus nociones relativas a la estética. El contacto con un mundo nuevo y con numerosas obras de arte no dejó indiferente a una persona de la sensibilidad e inteligencia de Peirce, sino que por el contrario contribuyó a desarrollar distintas impresiones y concepciones que años después adquirirían gran importancia en su definición de las ciencias normativas y del pragmatismo.
Estudiaré en primer lugar la conexión de Peirce con el arte, y me detendré en algunos ejemplos significativos de sus cartas europeas. En segundo lugar, desarrollaré brevemente la concepción de la estética y la teoría del arte presentes en el Peirce maduro, y que a mi entender están hondamente enraizadas en sus experiencias europeas. Mi conclusión pondrá de relieve el acance de la teoría estética de Peirce, que va más allá de una mera teoría del arte: as the European letters show, it is related with something indescribable that we try to express; and it puts us on track towards whatever deserves to be sought for itself, towards Beauty, Goodness and Truth.
Translation - English In this article I will focus on the aesthetic dimensions of Peirce's cosmopolitan period. As Prof. Houser has already noted, Peirce's European experiences influenced the later development of his thought, and this is also the case with his ideas concerning aesthetics. His contact with a new world and with numerous artworks could not fail to impress a person of Peirce's sensibility and intelligence; on the contrary, it prompted him to develop distinct impressions and conceptions that years later would acquire great importance in his definition of the normative sciences and of pragmatism itself.
In the first place, I will study Peirce's connection with art, and I will highlight certain significant examples taken from his European letters. In the second place, I will briefly explore the conception of aesthetics and the theory of art that are present in Peirce's mature thought, and which, in my opinion, are deeply rooted in his European experiences. My conclusion will highlight the reach of his theory of aesthetics, which goes beyond a mere theory of art: as the European letters show, it is related to something indescribable that we try to express; and it puts us on track towards that which deserves to be sought for itself, towards Beauty, Goodness and Truth.
Spanish to English: Commentary on Adam's Smith's theory of economics General field: Social Sciences Detailed field: Philosophy
Source text - Spanish Adam Smith no utiliza dos metodologías distintas en su obra, una filosófica en TMS y otra científico positiva en WN. Escribe siempre desde una filosofía empirista. Existe por tanto una coherencia entre los fenómenos morales y los fenómenos económicos en sus escritos. Por eso, la interpretación de la relación existente entre el “precio natural” y los propósitos de la naturaleza en Smith, planteada por David Andrews, es muy interesante. El precio natural es un fenómeno económico, tratado en WN, que debe ser comprendido a la luz de un fenómeno moral, el impulso natural a la self-preservation y a la propagación de la especie, al que se refiere Smith en TMS y LD. Los hombres han desarrollado la división del trabajo, la dependencia mutua y el intercambio y los precios, a partir de ese impulso original. Así, el precio natural de una commodity es aquel que supports los propósitos de la naturaleza, proporcionando por una parte mantenimiento a los que participan en la producción, y sosteniendo, por otra, esas actividades económicas indefinidamente.
Andrews considera que Smith fue influido por Aristóteles al explicar esa relación, influencia que sería manifiesta en dos puntos principales. Por una parte, la metáfora gravitacional que aparece en WN, según la cual se explican las fluctuaciones del precio de mercado, no sería de origen newtoniano, sino Empedoclean or Aristotelian. En efecto, si el precio de mercado gravitara en torno al precio natural según la gravedad newtoniana, la atracción entre ambos sería mutua, y el precio de mercado haría moverse al precio natural, según causas extrañas a los propósitos de la naturaleza, que no contribuyen al buen funcionamiento del sistema económico. En cambio, si el precio de mercado se mueve según la gravedad de los antiguos físicos, lo hace hacia un centro de reposo, que es el precio natural. Este último se explica considerando las intenciones de la naturaleza, que son la self–presevation y la propagación de la especie, las cuales se encuentran en todos los animales. Ahora bien, Smith no sería original al plantear esta teleología natural, según Andrews, sino que se la habría sugerido Aristóteles. Esta afirmación me parece muy discutible.
Translation - English Adam Smith does not use two different methodologies in his work, a philosophical one in TMS and another, of a positive, scientific character in WN. Rather, he always writes within the framework of an empiricist philosophy. There is, therefore, a coherence between moral phenomena and economic phenomena in his writings. As a result, the interpretation that David Andrews proposes of the relationship that exists between the "natural price" and the purposes of nature in Smith is very interesting. Natural price is an economic phenomenon, discussed in WN, and which should be understood in the light of a moral phenomenon, i.e. the natural impulse to self-preservation and the propagation of the species, to which Smith refers in TMS and LD. Human beings have developed the division of labor, mutual dependence, exchange and prices on the basis of this originating impulse. Thus, the natural price of a commodity is that which supports the purposes of nature: on the one hand it provides maintenance for those who participate in production, while on the other hand it sustains these economic activities indefinitely.
Andrews holds that Smith was influenced by Aristotle in his explanation of this relationship, an influence that he sees displayed in two principal points. First, he claims that the gravitational metaphor that appears in WN, and which explains the fluctuations of market prices, does not originate with Newton, but is drawn instead from Empedocles or Aristotle. Indeed, if the market price were to gravitate around the natural price according to a Newtonian conception of gravity, the attraction between them would be mutual, and the market price would make the natural price shift as well, as a result of causes alien to the purposes of nature that do not contribute to the proper functioning of the economic system. In contrast, if the market price moves according to the ancient conception of gravity, it would do so towards a center of repose, which is the natural price. This phenomenon is explained by taking into consideration the intentions of nature, which are self–preservation and the propagation of the species, and which are found in all animals. Hence, Smith would not be the first to present a natural teleology of this sort, according to Andrews, but rather it would have first been proposed by Aristotle. I believe this affirmation is highly debatable.
Spanish to English: From Metaphors to Categories General field: Social Sciences Detailed field: Philosophy
Source text - Spanish Los nombres divinos que provienen de lugares específicos de la sacra pagina ostentan una compleja relación semántica con el lenguaje lógico-metafísico de la filosofía antigua. Las disciplinas sermocinales del trivium (gramática, lógica, retórica) se encargaron de adaptar esta doble vertiente, por un lado el texto sagrado y por el otro la tradición de las artes liberales, en un mismo discurrir especulativo. En el siglo XII el estudio acerca del modo en que la inestabilidad del lenguaje común significa los términos atribuidos a la divinidad en los textos sagrados fue, en gran medida, el centro de la reflexión teológica. Estos nombres son para la gramática partes del discurso y el objeto de un conjunto de normas de construcción proposicional, mientras que para la lógica son términos que manifiestan un significado predicamental respecto a otros términos. Las disciplinas sermocinales antiguas, que surgieron ajenas al cristianismo, produjeron la emergencia de la complejidad semántica de los nombres divinos que “trasladan” el sentido intelectual y natural de la relación creador/creatura.
Tal como lo expone Chenu, la teoría gramatical intentó demostrar la estructura esencial que subyace a las proposiciones, mientras la lógica buscaba la unidad semántica entre los diversos modos en que un término se dice respecto a otro. De esta forma, los enunciados teológicos mantienen la estructura de las artes sermocinales, siempre que la significación de los términos sea equivalente a la concepción teológica de la unidad simple e inmóvil que representan la divinidad y sus propiedades. Podría decirse que el Arte luliano es un peculiar ejemplo del modo en el que las artes sermocinales se esforzaron por determinar un orden dentro de la multiplicidad de significados que desde el punto de vista teológico tienen términos como bondad, justicia, sabiduría o grandeza.
Translation - English The divine names that derive from specific passages in the sacra pagina show a complex semantic relationship with the logical-metaphysical language of ancient philosophy. The instructional disciplines of the trivium (grammar, logic and rhetoric) were charged with teaching along these two axes--on the one hand, the sacred text, and on the other, the tradition of the liberal arts--within a single speculative discourse. In the 12th century the study of the ways in which the instability of ordinary language affects the meaning of the terms attributed to the divinity in the sacred texts was, to a large degree, at the center of theological reflection. These names, which in grammatical terms are part of normal discourse and the object of a set of norms of propositional construction, for logic are terms that display a predicamental meaning with respect to other terms. The ancient instructional disciplines, which developed outside of the Christian tradition, caused the emergence of the semantic complexity of the divine names that "translate" the intellectual and natural meaning of the creature-Creator relation.
Just as Chenu has explained, ancient and medieval grammatical theory attempted to demonstrate the essential structure that underlies propositions, while logic sought a semantic unity among the diverse modes in which a term can be used with respect to another. In this way, theological statements maintain the structure provided by the instructional arts, so long as the meaning of the terms is equivalent to the theological conception of the simple and immobile unity that represents the divinity and its properties. It can be said that Llull's Art is a specific example of the way in which the instructional arts worked to determine an order within the multiplicity of meanings that, from the theological point of view, are possessed by terms such as goodness, justice, wisdom and greatness.
Spanish to English: Perspective and Heterotopy in Tafuri General field: Social Sciences Detailed field: Architecture
Source text - Spanish Es lugar común en los círculos de recepción de la obra tafuriana considerar su lectura del Renacimiento como directamente contrapuesta a la visión del mismo mantenida por Wittkower en La arquitectura en la edad del humanismo (1949).1 Esta comparación, básicamente, consiste en proponer las visiones sobre Brunelleschi y Alberti que Tafuri realiza mediante la introducción de la famosa Novella del Grasso Legnaiuolo y los textos albertianos del Momus, De Irarchia o el Theogonius, como muestra de un Renacimiento en crisis y, lo que es aún más importante, consciente de estar en crisis desde su mismo inicio. Es decir, que frente a la lectura wittkoweriana que presentaba a Brunelleschi y Alberti como ejemplos paradigmáticos de la influencia neoplatónica sobre la arquitectura en tanto que proporcionada respecto al hombre, a su vez armónicamente proporcionado con la naturaleza, el cosmos, y el todo; Tafuri propone una lectura mucho más problemática que aludirá desde la extrema violencia del mundo descrita en el Momus o los Intercenali (frente a la definición de la armonía dada por Alberti en el De Re Aedificatoria) hasta la crisis de la misma noción de identidad, y, por tanto, de unidad, presente en un Brunelleschi mucho más irónico, e incluso cínico, como muestra la Novella del Grasso. Una lectura que, por consiguiente, rechaza toda alusión a una influencia directa de una supuestamente unitaria teoría humanista-neoplatónica centrada en Ficino y, más allá aún, a toda argumentación que conlleve el presupuesto de un fundamento último trascendente a la problematicidad del mundo como fundamento de la armonía de este, el hombre, o la arquitectura.
Translation - English It is a common view in the circles of reception of Tafuri's work that his work on Renaissance architecture is directly opposed to that of Wittkower as presented in Architectural Principles in the Age of Humanism (1949) [creo].1 This comparison consists basically in highlighting Tafuri's views on Brunelleschi and Alberti as presented in his introduction to the famous Novella del Grasso Legnaiuolo and the Albertian texts Momus, De Irarchia and Theogonius, as examples of a Renaissance in crisis, and even more importantly, conscious of its being in crisis right from its very beginnings. That is, in response to the Wittkowerian reading of Brunelleschi and Alberti as paradigmatic examples of Neoplatonic influence on architecture as proportional to the human being, while also being harmonically proportioned to nature, the cosmos and the whole, Tafuri proposes a much more problematic reading that alludes to the extreme violence of the world described in Momus and the Intercenali (as opposed to the definition of harmony given by Alberti in De Re Aedificatoria) and to the crisis of the very notion of identity, and therefore of unity itself, which is present in a Bruschelli who is much more ironic, and even cyncial, as shown by the Novella del Grasso. This is a reading which, as a result, rejects any allusion to a direct influence of a supposed unitary humanist-Neoplatonic theory deriving from Ficino and, furthermore, rejects any argumentation that depends on the supposition of an ultimate basis that transcends the problematic nature of the world as a basis for it, or for man or architecture.
Spanish to English: Deep Brain Stimulation and Clinical Ontology General field: Medical Detailed field: Medical (general)
Source text - Spanish La estimulación cerebral profunda (DBS) es un tipo de neurocirugía apenas invasiva que consiste en la implantación de uno o dos electrodos en áreas subcorticales del cerebro que están conectados a un neuroestimulador que emite impulsos eléctricos de baja intensidad. Aunque todavía se desconoce gran parte de los mecanismos de acción de este tratamiento, en términos generales puede decirse que las pequeñas descargas logran restablecer parcialmente la comunicación perdida entre áreas neuronales a la vez que inactivar anómalas señales nerviosas. Todavía es una técnica en evaluación, si bien ya se está utilizando en el ámbito sanitario para el tratamiento del tremor esencial (essential tremor), de la distonía (dystonia), del Síndrome de Tourette (Tourette’s Sindrome) y de casos de Parkinson refractario a medicación. No parecen ser las únicas aplicaciones, actualmente se están llevando a cabo ensayos clínicos para comprobar su utilidad en afecciones psiquiátricas como el trastorno obsesivo-compulsivo (OCD) (obsessive compulsive disorder) y la depresión mayor (major depressive disorder), entre otras1.
Se estima que más de 50000 pacientes han sido ya intervenidos con DBS, en algunos casos con resultados inmediatos y espectaculares, no solo con respecto a síntomas particulares sino en lo que a la calidad de vida se refiere2. Las expectativas son más que prometedoras, aunque todavía sus riesgos y efectos adversos (tanto por la implantación de los electrodos como por la estimulación eléctrica) siguen siendo numerosos y graves: reacciones alérgicas, infecciones, hemorragias intracerebrales, vértigo y alteraciones cognitivas y afectivas… Baste decir que, hoy por hoy, la comunidad médica considera la DBS el último recurso terapéutico. En tales complejas circunstancias hay que entender los problemas éticos que rodean su indicación, por ejemplo, los relacionados con el consentimiento informado en pacientes especialmente vulnerables; con el manejo de la información y de las falsas expectativas que dicha técnica genera; con el reclutamiento de los voluntarios de investigación en DBS; con los conflictos de interés que emergen de la indicación de una técnica quirúrgica muy cara que pocos sistemas sanitarios son capaces de cubrir; y por último, con el asunto sobre qué está dispuesto a sacrificar el paciente con tal de aliviar sus síntomas3. En esta última cuestión centraré el artículo, concretamente sobre el cambio de personalidad, que es uno de los más intrigantes efectos adversos de la DBS.
Translation - English Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) is a type of neurosurgery of low invasiveness which consists in the implantation of one or two electrodes in subcortical areas of the brain, which are connected to a neurostimulator which emits low-intensity electrical impulses. Although we still do not understand a great part of the mechanisms of action of this treatment, in general terms it can be said that the small discharges are able to partially reestablish lost communication between neuronal areas, while at the same time they deactivate anomalous nerve signals. This technique is still undergoing evaluation, although it is already being used in the health sector for the treatment of essential tremor, dystonia, Tourette's Syndrome and cases of Parkinson's which do not respond to medication. It appears that these are not the only applications; currently clinical trials are being carried out to verify its usefulness in psychiatric disorders such as obsessive-compulsive disorder and major depressive disorder, among others.
It is estimated that more than 50,000 patients have been treated with DBS, in some cases with immediate and spectacular results, not only with respect to particular symptoms but also in regards to overall quality of life. The outlook is quite promising, although associated risks and adverse effects (both due to the implantation of the electrodes as well as due to the electrical stimulation) continue to be numerous and serious: allergic reactions, infections, intracerebral hemorrhages, vertigo and cognitive and affective alteractions... Suffice it to say that, as of today, the medical community considers DBS to being a technique of last resort. In such complex circumstances, the ethical problems must be understood which are involved in the indication of DBS as a therapeutic technique; for instance, those related with the informed consent in especially vulnerable patients; with the handling of the information and of the false expectations that this technique generates; with the recruitment of the DBS research volunteers; with the conflicts of interest which derive from the indication of a very expensive surgical technique which few health systems are able to cover; and finally, with the issue of what the patient is prepared to sacrifice in order to alleviate his or her symptoms. This article will focus on this latter question, specifically on personality change, which is one of the most intriguing adverse effects of DBS.
Spanish to English: Education for Sociability General field: Social Sciences Detailed field: Education / Pedagogy
Source text - Spanish Si nos preguntamos por algunos rasgos sobresalientes de la educación, así como de la reflexión que sobre ella se ha realizado en las últimas décadas podríamos decir que hay un tema estrella, que es la necesidad de promocionar una educación que tenga en cuenta -más y mejor- los aspectos morales y especialmente cívicos.
Este hecho podría ser visto como un modo de responder a la crisis de sociabilidad en la que estamos inmersos y que se denuncia con relativa frecuencia. La sociabilidad es una cuestión palpitante, ascendente, no sólo en el ámbito educativo, sino en general en las humanidades y las ciencias sociales. Un problema que tenemos planteado actualmente en las relaciones humanas es, en gran medida, que nos ignoramos mutuamente o, dicho de otra manera: la fragmentación y la indiferencia (Touraine, 1997). Nos lamentamos por la escasa cohesión social que percibimos y ésta se nos presenta cada vez más dificultosa. ¿Qué nos ha pasado en el ámbito personal y comunitario, psicológico y sociológico para llegar a ese punto?
Translation - English If we ask ourselves about some outstanding features of education, as well as of the reflection which has been undertaken about it in recent decades we could say that there is a "star" theme, which is the necessity to promote an education which takes into account--more and better--its moral and especially civic aspects.
This fact could be seen as a way of responding to the crisis of sociability in which we are immersed, and which is denounced with relative frequency. Sociability is a burning question which is in ascent, not only in the area of education, but in general in the humanities and social sciences. A problem which we are currently facing in human relations is that, in large measure, we mutually ignore each other, or stated in another way: fragmentation and indifference (Touraine, 1997). We lament this meager social cohesion that we perceive, and which appears to us as ever more difficult. What has happened in the personal and community, psychological and sociological ambits for us to have gotten to this point?
Spanish to English: The interest of synthetic ether phospholipids as antitumor agents General field: Science Detailed field: Biology (-tech,-chem,micro-)
Source text - Spanish Los análogos sintéticos éter fosfolípidos, o también conocidos como alquil-lisofosfolípidos (ALPs) entre los que el 1-O-octadecil-2-O-metil-rac-glicero-3-fosfocolina (ET-18-OCH3, edelfosina) es su compuesto prototípico, constituyen una prometedora clase de substancias antitumorales orales que no tienen al ADN como diana, sino que actúan al nivel de la membrana (3-6). Estudios previos del grupo del Dr. Faustino Mollinedo, del Centro de Investigación del cancer de Salamanca (con el que llevamos colaborando desde hace varios años) indican que la edelfosina se acumula fundamentalmente en “lipid rafts” en células provenientes de cánceres hematológicos y en el retículo endoplásmico en células derivadas de tumores sólidos, de aquí que este compuesto antitumoral parece mostrar dianas diferentes en distintos tipos de célula tumoral (7-9). Los cambios producidos por la edelfosina en la composición lipídica y proteíca de los dominios “lipid rafts” parecen ser claves en la inducción de apoptosis en la célula cancerosa, y constituyen un nuevo paradigma en el estudio de dianas terapéuticas y fármacos antitumorales.
Sin embargo, a pesar de la buena eficacia de la edelfosina in vitro, los resultados in vivo en modelos animales hasta el momento han sido más bien modestos. La discrepancia observada entre los resultados obtenidos in vitro e in vivo podría ser debida a una baja absorción del fármaco en el tracto gastrointestinal. En estudios recientes de farmacocinética y biodistribución, hemos puesto de manifiesto que la biodisponibilidad oral de la edelfosina es muy baja a dosis única pero se incrementa tras 6 días de administración oral diaria (10). Por otro lado, en estudios in vitro e in vivo, hemos encontrado que la edelfosina se acumula en células de mieloma múltiple (11) y en células de linfoma de manto y leucemia linfocítica crónica (12). Estos resultados demuestran la eficacia de la edelfosina en el tratamiento de tumores de células B. Además en estos estudios hemos puesto también de manifiesto que la acción antitumoral de la edelfosina implica a los dominios de membrana denominados “lipid rafts”, confirmándose estos dominios de membrana como nuevas dianas terapéuticas (11, 12). Con todo esto, y debido a que dos aspectos importantes en la introducción de un fármaco en clínica son la administración del fármaco y su biodisponibilidad, el uso de nanopartículas lipídicas de edelfosina y análogos podría suponer un incremento muy significativo de la eficacia antitumoral de este compuesto tanto por la posibilidad de aumentar la absorción a nivel intestinal como por la de disminuir la dosis de principio activo, al no requerirse una dosis diaria elevada para mantener niveles de compuesto farmacológicamente significativos en sangre, lo que disminuirá los posibles efectos tóxicos.
Translation - English The synthetic analogues, ether phospholipids, also known as alkyl-lysophospholipids (ALPs), among which 1-O-octadecyl-2-O-methyl-rac-glycero-3-phosphocholine (ET-18-OCH3, edelfosine) is its prototypical compound, constitute a promising class of oral antitumor substances which do not have DNA as their target, but rather act at the level of the membrane (3-6). Previous studies by the group of Dr. Faustino Millinedo, of the Center for Cancer Research in Salamanca (with which we have been collaborating for several years) indicate that edelfosine accumulates fundamentally in "lipid rafts" in cells deriving from hematological cancers and in the endoplasmic reticulum in cells derived from solid tumors, so that this antitumor compound appears to demonstrate different targets in distinct types of tumor cell (7-9). The changes produced by edelfosine in the lipid and protein composition of the "lipid raft" domains appear to be key to the induction of apoptosis in the cancerous cell, and constitute a new paradigm in the in the study of therapeutic targets and antitumor drugs.
Nevertheless, despite the high effectiveness of edelfosine in vitro, the results in vivo in animal models have been up to now rather modest. The discrepancy observed between the results obtained in vitro and in vivo could be due to a low absorption of the drug in the gastrointestinal tract. In recent studies of pharmacokinetics and biodistribution, we have shown that the oral bioavailability is very low after a single dose but increases after 6 days of daily oral administration (10). On the other hand, in studies in vitro and in vivo, we have discovered that edelfosine accumulates in multiple myeloma cells (11) and in cells of mantle cell lymphoma and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (12). These results demonstrate the effectiveness of edelfosine in the treatment of B-cell tumors. In addition, in these studies we have also highlighted that the antitumor action of edelfosine involves the membrane domains termed "lipid rafts", confirming these membrane domains as new therapeutic targets (11, 12). Given all this, and due to the fact that two important aspects in the clinical introduction of a drug are the administration of the drug and its bioavailability, the use of lipid nanoparticles of edelfosine and analogues could involve a very significant increase in the antitumor effectiveness of this compound, both due to the possibility of increasing the absorption at the intestinal level as well as the reduction of the dosage of the active principle, since a high daily dosage will not be necessary in order to maintain pharmacologically significant levels of the compound in the blood, which will in turn reduce possible toxic effects.
Spanish to English: Δευς in Cornutus General field: Social Sciences Detailed field: History
Source text - Spanish En el S. I d. C. el filósofo y gramático romano Anneo Cornuto compuso en griego un manual de mitología alegórica, el Repaso de las tradiciones teológicas de los griegos (Ἐπιδρομὴ τῶν κατὰ τὴν Ἑλληνικὴν θεολογίαν παραδεδομένων)1. En esta obra de intención didáctica Cornuto pasa revista a los dioses principales de Grecia ante un joven discípulo de origen romano. Por medio de etimologías más o menos imaginativas el autor intenta descifrar el sentido alegórico que esconden los mitos de acuerdo con una concepción que Cornuto comparte con un buen número de pensadores estoicos.
Lo que hallamos en la inmensa mayoría de los casos dentro de la Ἐπιδρομή son interpretaciones de los dioses en clave física. En este sentido se estudia la figura de Zeus, en quien se centra Cornuto en el segundo capítulo de la obra:
ὥσπερ δὲ ἡμεῖς ὑπὸ ψυχῆς διοικούμεθα, οὕτω καὶ ὁ κόσμος ψυχὴν ἔχει τὴν συνέχουσαν αὐτόν, καὶ αὕτη καλεῖται Ζεύς, πρώτως καὶ διὰ παντὸς ζῶσα καὶ αἰτία οὖσα τοῖς ζῶσι τοῦ ζῆν (Corn., ND 2, 3 3-6 Lang).
En opinión de Cornuto y de los antiguos alegoristas un mismo nombre puede estar abierto a distintas interpretaciones alegóricas, sin que éstas hayan de excluirse entre sí. Por ello, después de decir que Zeus es el alma viviente del cosmos, Cornuto añade una nueva explicación según la cual el dios supremo es causa por excelencia. La primera interpretación la había hecho a partir del nominativo del nombre de Zeus; en esta segunda ocasión Cornuto parte del acusativo de Ζεύς, Δία, forma que relaciona con la preposición causal διά, como ya habían hecho otros antes que él.
Translation - English he Roman philosopher and grammarian Annaeus Cornutus wrote, in Greek, a manual of allegorical mythology, entitled A Survey of the Theological Traditions of the Greeks (Ἐπιδρομὴ τῶν κατὰ τὴν Ἑλληνικὴν θεολογίαν παραδεδομένων). In this work, which has a didactic purpose, Cornutus makes a survey of the principal gods of Greece, for the benefit of a young disciple from Rome. By means of more-or-less imaginative etymologies, Cornutus attempts to decipher the allegorical meaning that are hidden in myths, following a theory that he shares with a good number of Stoic thinkers.
What we discover is that in the immense majority of the cases within the Ἐπιδρομή, the interpretations of the gods are made in a physicalist vein. This is the way in which the figure of Zeus is studied, on whom Cornutus focuses in the second chapter of his work:
ὥσπερ δὲ ἡμεῖς ὑπὸ ψυχῆς διοικούμεθα, οὕτω καὶ ὁ κόσμος ψυχὴν ἔχει τὴν συνέχουσαν αὐτόν, καὶ αὕτη καλεῖται Ζεύς, πρώτως καὶ διὰ παντὸς ζῶσα καὶ αἰτία οὖσα τοῖς ζῶσι τοῦ ζῆν (Corn., ND 2, 3 3-6 Lang).
In the opinion of Cornutus and the ancient allegorists, a single name may be open to several distinct allegorical interpretations, without implying mutual exclusivity among them. Therefore, after saying that Zeus is the living soul of the cosmos, Cornutus adds a new explanation, according to which the supreme god is the cause par excellence. The first intepretation was based on the nominative of the name of Zeus; in the second case, Cornutus derives his interpretation from the accusative form of Ζεύς, Δία, which in turn is related to the causal preposition διά, as other authors had already done before him.
I founded CyberLogos nearly nine years ago now, when I was living and studying for my Ph.D. in Spain. Since that time I have worked with dozens of clients in order to provide them with high quality translations into English, mostly from Spanish but also occasionally from Italian. My area of focus is philosophy and the humanities, although I also do work in various areas of the hard sciences and business. My clients come from all over the Spanish-speaking world and Italy, but are almost exclusively university professors or researchers.
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